Twelfth Annual Psych Conference Abstracts


An Assessment of HIV Issues among Inmates at a State Correctional Institution

Michael Antonio & Patrice Shovlin
Ursinus College

The spread of AIDS throughout correctional facilities in the United States has been increasing at an alarming rate. Several factors contribute to inmates' risk of contracting HIV, including the fact that prison populations contain large numbers of individuals who engage in male homosexual activity and intravenous drug use (Monnig & Johnson, 1991).

Despite this problem, few prison HIV education programs exist. Designing effective programs require assessment of inmates' needs. Here, focus groups were conducted to explore inmates' beliefs, attitudes, knowledge, and experiences related to HIV and AIDS. It was hypothesized that their knowledge regarding modes of HIV transmission would differ among races, and that individuals incarcerated for drug offenses would engage in riskier behaviors than non-drug offenders. Results showed no significant differences between racial or nature of offense groups.

Overall, responses revealed an unexpected paradox of both hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity to HIV risk. The large majority had a general knowledge of HIV transmission. However, despite their knowledge, many inmates remained uncertain about sharing eating utensils and utilities with individuals known to be carriers of the virus. Also, most were aware of some preventative measures which could curb the spread of the virus, but most admitted an unwillingness to take these safety precautions after release.

A greater sense of uncertainty and irrational fear existed among participants who had no previous formal education about HIV related issues. In addition, the inmates revealed that HIV infection was the disease they feared most, and the majority expressed concern regarding discrimination against individuals who are HIV positive. All strongly favored an HIV preventative education which was taught by a well informed peer instructor.


Freshman Survey Variables as Predicators of College Attrition

Christina C. Antioco & Thomas P. Hogan
University of Scranton

Attempts to identify students at risk of leaving a post-secondary institution have increased considerably in recent years. Potential predicators of attrition include academic, social, demographic, and personality variables. This study attempts to use responses to the HERI freshman survey for 524 entering students at a mid-sized, private university in the Northeastern U.S. as possible predicators of later attrition. Students retention status was tracked for six years. Retained students were considered to be those that graduated in the 1995 or 1996, or were still attending as of the time of this study. All others were labeled as cases of attrition.

The survey items particularly relevant to this study were 17 questions about self-ratings of abilities and characteristics, 25 questions pertaining to activities engaged in over the past year, and 12 reasons for attending college. SAT scores and high school GPA were also available for analysis.

Results showed SAT scores and high school rank to correlate with retention, but did not support the hypothesis that self-ratings or reasons for attending college predict attrition. However, certain activities students engaged in during the previous year did show significant differences between retained and non- retained students. The activities predictive of attrition were: being bored in class, not completing homework on time, being a guest in a teacher's home, smoking cigarettes, and staying up all night. Activities predictive of retention were: attending religious services, performing volunteer work, voting in student elections, and discussing politics.

This study supports previous studies that academic factors are predictive of student retention (Tinto 1993, 1996; Lyons 1991). As for the activities engaged in, it is suggested that students who were more active in the year before entering college are more likely to be retained.


Comparison Study of the Self-Esteem of African American Female Adolescence: Welfare Recipients versus Non-Welfare Recipients

Andrea Armstead
Mount Saint Mary College

This study examines the self-esteem of African American female adolescents. It examines the relationship between welfare recipients verses non-welfare recipients. The population of this study consists of African American females ages 14 to 19. The population has a value of n = 50. 25 of whom are on welfare and 25 of whom are not on. Two interviews and a secondary analysis of survey results were used.


The Effects of Self-Esteem, Socially Prescribed Perfectionism, and Gender on Condom Purchase and Negotiation and Use

Holly Aton & Eileen Astor-Stetson
Bloomsburg University

Even though 25% of sexually active women contract an STD by age 21 (Public Health Service, 1991 as cited in Reisen & Poppen, 1995), most college students do not use protection during intercourse (Helwig-Larsen & Collins, 1994). Several cognitive-expectancy theories and models such as the Health Belief Model, the Theory of Reasoned Action, and Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory try to explain this by sharing the idea that people weigh the costs and benefits of a behavior, while considering the consequences and values that they attach to certain outcomes (for a review, see Adler, Kegeles, and Genevro, 1992). However, Helwig-Larsen and Collins suggested that variables from social-psychological theories such as the negotiation of condom use, public behaviors such as buying condoms, impressions other people get about people who buy condoms, and gender roles can also affect behavior. The present study was designed to compare social-psychological theories with decision making theories, to look specifically at how self-esteem, socially prescribed perfectionism, and gender are related to condom purchase and negotiation and use. Participants included 258 students (mean age = 18.9 years) from a general psychology class. Students completed questionnaires designed to measure overt and covert self- esteem, socially prescribed perfectionism, and condom attitudes. ANOVA's revealed that men felt more positive about the reliability and effectiveness of condoms than did females, women scored higher than identity stigma than did men, and males scored more positively on the purchase scale than did females. A strong negative correlation was found between socially prescribed perfectionism and overt self-esteem. Positive relationships were found between overt self-esteem and identity stigma, negotiation and use, purchase, and overall condom attitude. These results provide support for the social-psychological factors of behavior suggested by Helwig-Larsen and Collins (1994) and expand upon the predictions of the expectancy-value models.


A Comparative Analysis of Different Methods Employed in Visual Cliff Studies: Examining Conflicting Predictors of Avoidance Behavior

Karen Ban, Julie Quimby, Nancy Rader, & Research Team 4
Ithaca College

To date, researchers studying the avoidance response of young infants on a visual cliff apparatus have reported results that are inconsistent. Campos and his associates (e.g., Campos, Hiatt, Ramsey, Henderson & Svejda, 1978; Bertenthal and Campos, 1984) have argued that avoidance of the deep side develops as the result of locomotor experience. However, Rader and her colleagues (e.g., Rader, Bausano & Richards, 1980; Richards & Rader, 1981, 1983; Rader, 1996) have failed to find support for an experience-based model and have argued that maturation, or crawling onset age, is the key to explaining the differences between crossing and avoiding infants. Given the inconsistencies in the interpretation and results and the different methods used to assess avoidance behavior on the visual cliff, the present research investigated the discrepancies in the method and interpretation among the researchers. Several factors which differed across the original studies were examined in the present study including the amount of depth information provided in the visual cliff, amount of time allowed for each test to be completed, criteria for determining crawling onset age, different crawling postures, and amount of experience locomoting. Infants were tested 10 and 30 days following onset of locomotion, and again at 11.5 months of age. Results will be reported at the conference.


Parenting Styles, Moral Development, and Religiosity

Jennifer Banyas & Marion Mason
Bloomsburg University

This study investigated the relationships between parenting styles, religion, and moral development. It was hypothesized that higher moral reasoning would be correlated with a higher quality in parental relationships (positive affect, independence, and support). Also, it was proposed that higher faith development and spirituality would be correlated with a higher quality in parental relationships. The results reported here are for the first collection of data. We plan to continue this study with a new sample, including middle school students, in the near future.

Participants were 10 first semester freshmen (1 male, 9 females) and 25 senior college students (5 males, 20 females). Four questionnaires were given. The Defining Issues Test (DIT) assessed stages of Kohlbergian moral development. The Adult Faith Questionnaire (AFQ) and the Spiritual Well Being Scale (SWBS) assessed religiosity and faith. Finally, parenting styles were assessed using the Parental Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ).

Results indicated that people who hold membership in a religious community demonstrate higher scored on the SWBS (t = -4.57, p < .001), thus reporting higher spirituality. Also, high scores on the SWBS were positively correlated with stage 3 faith development (r = .79, p < .01). In addition, those who are members of a religious community showed more support from their parents, as measured by the support subscale of the PAQ (t = -2.28, p < .03). Participants who reported being close to their parents also showed higher levels of independence (r = .69, p < .01) and support from their parents (r = .84, p < .01) (as demonstrated by the subscales of the PAQ). Regarding moral development, the DIT showed no relationship to the PAQ. Finally, older participants reported less support from their parents than younger participants (r = -.37, p < .05).

In conclusion, This first sample reflected views that contradict our first hypothesis relating moral reasoning to parenting styles. However, our second hypothesis predicting a positive relationship between faith, spirituality, and parenting styles was confirmed.


HIV Prevention Readiness in Undergraduate and Inmates

Michelle Barber & Kim Baxter
Ursinus College

Prevention of HIV transmission is increasingly an international priority. Education of high risk populations is important for effective prevention. Program design requires accurate needs assessment. This study was based on previous work which examined the attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge of inmates. It was found that a large majority of the inmates had a general knowledge of HIV transmission: many also displayed signs of paranoia surrounding the disease.

In the present study, the qualitative findings from Antonio et. al. (1996) translated into 24 self-report items presented in a Likert Scale format. This was done in order to obtain quantitative normative data on the issues made salient by the HIV and AIDS education programs in the state prison system. The HIV Prevention Readiness Scale was administered to 104 introductory psychology undergraduates and 33 inmates. Responses revealed significant differences between undergraduates and inmates in fear of HIV and motivation for education. College students reported less fear and less interest in obtaining further knowledge about HIV. Inmates were less afraid to disclose seropositive status than students and reported less likelihood of treating labeled individuals differently.

Our results indicated that the majority of inmates (69.7%) agreed that if given the chance, they would participate in a needle exchange program. Only 17.5% reported that they would give in to the temptation to get high rather than take precautionary measures. The majority (67.2%) of the inmates surveyed said that HIV infection was the disease they feared most. Nearly all inmates (95.6%) stated that injecting drug use would put them at risk of contracting HIV. Roughly two-thirds (67.9%) of the prisoners said that they would not shave with someone else's razor. The majority of inmates sampled were aware that you can contract HIV through body piercing (78.1%) and had knowledge that getting a tattoo could put them at risk of contracting HIV (74%).

Nearly half (45.5%) of the incarcerated males felt that it was unsafe to share the same sink or toilet with someone who has AIDS. Roughly 40% believed they could contract HIV through shared eating utensils and did not want to participate in contact sports with individuals who are HIV positive (54.5%).


Moderators of the relationship between moral reasoning and moral action

Galen L. Baril
University of Scranton

Since the relationship between Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning and moral action is typically less than .30, Stephen Thoma and his colleagues (1991) recommend the use of moderator variables. Therefore, this study investigated moderator effects for both experimentally manipulated and self-report social desirability as well as gender and self-reported extroversion, cooperativeness, dependability and anxiety. Two hundred and forty five undergraduates completed the five personality instruments, the Defining Issues Test and an "in-basket" exercise measuring moral action choice (under conditions of either high or low social desirability). Only extroversion and cooperativeness were significant moderators. The relationship between moral reasoning and moral action choice was more positive for introverts compared to extroverts and less cooperative individuals compared to cooperative individuals.


The Action vs. The Contemplation Stage: New Year's Resolvers and Nonresolvers
Matthew D. Blagys, Marci S. Mrykalo & John C. Norcross
University of Scranton

Previous research has demonstrated that self-changers in the contemplation stage employ different change processes than those in the action stage. We compared New Year's resolvers (n = 159; actioners) to nonresolvers (n = 123; contemplators) across 3 months. The two groups did not differ in terms of demographic characteristics, problem histories, or behavioral goals. However, resolvers/actioners professed a stronger readiness to change prior to January 1 and reported using more cognitive-behavioral processes than nonresolvers/contemplators once into January.


Effects of Gender on Decisional Conflict
N. Dishuk, S. Herrity, S. Bootay, J. Grecco, & C. Jones
Villanova University

The effects of gender on decisional conflict were investigated by having 29 females and 30 males respond to hypothetical stressful scenarios that required the utilization of one of five "coping patterns." The coping patterns discussed by Janis and Mann (1976) include four maladaptive responses and one more vigilant response. The level of perceived stress for each scenario was manipulated in terms of everyday hassles, personal dilemmas, and catastrophes. Subjects were asked to choose the coping pattern in each scenario that they would be most likely to utilize if they were actually in the given situation.

It was hypothesized that females would utilize the more passive maladaptive responses, while males would make use of the more aggressive maladaptive responses. The data, while found to be statistically significant in support of this hypothesis, also revealed that overall both sexes were more likely to engage in more vigilant information processing as opposed to ineffective methods of coping. It was also expected that situations with the lowest and highest perceived stress levels would be associated with more ineffective coping patterns. However, the data revealed that as the level of stress increased, the mean number of vigilant responses increased as well. Moreover, the data also showed that the mean number of vigilant responses was significantly higher for females than for males across all levels of stress. This suggests that females are more likely to make effective decisions in times of conflict regardless of the level of stress involved.


Gender Differences in the Midlife Transition
Jennifer Brach, Michael Knight, Lawrence T. Force, & Paul Schwartz
Mount Saint Mary College

This study provides an overview of gender differences in the midlife transition. Differences in attitudes and perceptions concerning careers, family, health, and aging are explored. The study also considers psychological differences between men and women at this stage of development. Attention if given to the way in which society embraces youth and vilifies aging, especially in the media. In addition, there are many socioeconomic implications of having these contemporaries all reach the age of retirement in the near future. In order to explore these differences and implications, a quantitative and qualitative analysis was completed.


Overshadowing and Latent Inhibition Counteract Each Other Due to Their Dependence on Different Comparator Cues

Adam S. Bristol, Aaron P. Blaisdell & Ralph R. Miller
Binghamton University

The comparator hypothesis (Miller & Matzel, 1988), a response rule for Pavlovian conditioning, proposes that behavioral expressions are the manifestation of a comparison at the time of testing between the target CS and its competing (comparator) cues in terms of their associations to the US. Therefore, overshadowing can be interpreted as arising from a strong association between the comparator (overshadowing) stimulus and the US relative to that of the target CS with the US. Moreover, the CS- preexposure effect reflects an equal CS-US association in preexposed and control subjects, but a stronger CS-comparator (context in this case) association in preexposed subjects. At test, the comparator-US association is more strongly activated. Hence, a diminished response to the target is observed. In this light, the comparator hypothesis makes a counterintuitive prediction that CS-preexposure and the overshadowing training ought counteract each other; the context becoming established as the comparator cue during the preexposure phase, which, in turn, prevents the highly salient A stimulus from overshadowing the target CS. As a result, less impairment of conditioned responding to the target should be observed relative to either treatment alone. This prediction was tested using a conditioned lick suppression task with rats. Experiment 1 found that subjects receiving the dual treatment showed greater responding than those experiencing single treatment. Experiments 2 and 3 replicated this effect using a sensory preconditioning procedure and found that post-training inflation of the context (but not A) was detrimental to the effect. Experiment 4 showed that context shifts between training phases also attenuated the effect.


The Effects of Praise Given Before a Task on Preschoolers' Performance
Jason Castrovinci, John Hibbard, Nancy Rader & Research Team 4
Ithaca College

Praise is often conceptualized as approval given when a job is well done, to provide feedback or reinforcement. Empirical studies have examined at length the effects of such praise on children's behavior. However, praise can also be given before a task when the praise involves positive comments about the person. The effects of such praise on children's performance has yet to be studied.

The proposed study is designed to examine the effect of offering praise, in the form of positive comments about the child, prior to a puzzle task. The hypothesis is that preschoolers who are given praise before a puzzle task will perform with more accuracy and speed, and show greater persistence than preschoolers in a control group.

The participants were three and four year old children from local day-care, preschool and activity programs. All participants entered a waiting room and then were taken for a walk to the testing room. If the child was chosen for the control group, the escort had a neutral interaction during the walk. If in the experimental group, the escort praised the child with comments on their appearance, demeanor, and affiliation with their particular program. During this walk, the experimenter was already in the testing room and had no knowledge of which group the child was in.

Once in the testing room, the tester directed the child to complete six puzzles, one at a time. The tester pretended to be engaged in something else while the child was working to limit interaction with the child. Each child had up to 15 minutes to complete as many puzzles as possible, but could choose to stop at any time.

Results to date show that participants in the praise group correctly placed more puzzle pieces. Complete results will be presented at the conference.


Autobiographies of Mental Patients: A (Reasonably) Comprehensive List and Teaching Applications
Jennifer S. Clifford, John C. Norcross, & Robert Sommer
University of Scranton and University of California, Davis

First-person narratives play a valuable role in teaching, researching, and understanding abnormal behavior. Despite the multiple and rich uses of autobiographical accounts of psychopathology, a current and comprehensive list of such accounts does not exist. This study provides, first, an updated and reasonably comprehensive list of published autobiographies by people treated for mental disorders, and second materials and suggestions for using this list in the context of psychology courses.

An extensive search of multiple data bases was undertaken to identify published autobiographical accounts published since 1982. We followed the earlier work done by Sommer and Osmond (1960, 1961, 1983), who attempted to locate published autobiographies by people who have been hospitalized for mental disorders, using similar criteria. A reasonably comprehensive list of approximately 200 published autobiographies is presented. The list is ordered into three groups by date of publication: those published since 1982, between 1960-1982, and before 1960. An Autobiographical Review Form that we have used with students enrolled in two psychology courses is also shared.


Somatotype and the Affiliation Motive
Scott Cranmer & John A. Nonnemacher
Ursinus College

Research looks into the possible effect of morphologically-based stereotypes on affiliation. Past research has shown that people ten to attribute abilities and personal qualities to people of differing body builds, such as intelligence, laziness, joviality, athletic ability, and physical attractiveness. The hypothesis states that stereotypes influence people's preferences in choosing an affiliate for specific situations. In the study, subjects were presented with three silhouettes from Sheldon's Atlas of Men, each representing one of three body types -- the ectomorph; or slim build, the endomorph; or overweight build, and the mesomorph; or muscular build. Analysis of the results indicated that the affiliation motive was affected by both somatotype and gender. First, as has been previously established, subjects respond in ways consistent with the stereotypes associated with body build, and these stereotypes function to guide preferences for affiliation with specific somatotypes in a context specific manner. Second, the analysis indicates that there is a statistically significant gender difference; men seem to show pronounced preferences for affiliation depending upon somatotype and context, in contrast to women who did not. Last, for men affiliative preference is related to the individual subject's own perceived body build. Hypotheses concerning these gender and context effects on affiliation are discussed.


Personality Variables are Associated with Appreciation of Gender-Based Humor
Kelly Cronin, Vanessa Fazio, Christian Filiberto, Jenna Levitt, Jennifer Schmitt, & Bernard C. Beins
Ithaca College

Sometimes a joke will elicit laughter from one person but disdain from another. We investigated variables associated with different responses to humor. Female and male participants rated jokes with clearly identifiable female or male victims, or with no obvious victim. The participants also completed the Attitudes Toward Women (ATW) Scale and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES).

In general, women showed higher scores on the ATW Scale and lower enjoyment of female-victim jokes. In addition, we found that among all participants, more positive attitudes toward women correlated with less enjoyment of female-victim jokes. On the other hand, attitudes toward women did not predict degree of enjoyment of male-victim jokes. This result suggests that a person's attitudes toward women are independent of attitudes toward men. Another implication is that the dislike for female-victim jokes reflects a specific attitude related to gender rather than a general dislike for victimizing jokes per se.

Our results also revealed a significant relationship between men's SES scores and their enjoyment of male victim jokes; that is, men with higher self-esteem found more humor in jokes with male victims. This association failed to appear among women.

This study leads us to conclude that we must assess responses to victimizing humor along different dimensions for men and for women. In addition, we suggest that a generalized response to victimizing humor does not manifest itself; dislike for some victimizing jokes is not associated with dislike for others.


The Theme of Cross-Sex Friendship in Children's Books
Adma J. d'Heurle & James C. Dooley
Mercy College

The paper presents a study of children's books that have received an honorary mention or a Newberry Award from 1969 to the present. The treatment of the theme of friendship, in this sample of books aimed at readers between the ages of eight and eleven, is examined with a particular focus on cross-sex friendships.

Quantitative measures of frequency of the appearance of the theme, date of publication, age of the hero and gender of the author are noted. The major finding, however, relates to the qualitative differences in the significance of the friendship, its duration, its value for the characters involved and the meaning attributed to it. Differences are noted along some of these dimensions if the central character is a male with a female friend or a female with a male friend.


Maternal Employment's Relationship to Attachment and Perceived Dependency in Introverts and Extroverts
Meera Domingo, Sharon Keppley, & Catherine Chambliss
Ursinus College

The present study examined whether maternal employment affects children differently depending on their personality style. Extroversion was expected to mediate the effects of maternal employment on adult attachment and independence. Whereas extroverts' preference for social stimuli was assumed to facilitate adjustment to group day care and babysitters, introverts' difficulty with social situations was expected to interfere with this adaptation to day care. As a consequence, extroverts were expected to show fewer adverse effects following maternal employment in infancy. Since solitude is more consistent with the preferences of introverted children, maternal employment during the school age period was expected to be less a problem for introverted than extroverted youngsters. In general, children with working mothers were expected to be more independent. Their attachment behavior was not expected to be directly affected by maternal employment.

Responses from 106 undergraduates were obtained on 4 different measures. Dependence was measured using the Perceived Dependence scale which was created by the authors. The Adult Attachment Scale developed by Collins and Read (1990) measures self assessment of relationship-building skills and self- described style in forming close attachments. Extroversion was measured by a subscale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory (1963), which measures the way people behave, feel, and act. The Adolescent Relationship Questionnaire and the Adolescent Relationship Scales Questionnaire developed by Scharfe (1995) also measured attachment.

Subjects were divided into three groups based on mother's employment status. A median split was performed to divide subjects into high and low extroversion subgroups. Maternal employment showed no significant effect on perceived dependence in early adulthood. Contrary to expectations, subjects high in extroversion seemed to show more adverse adult attachment consequences associated with infant maternal employment. Possibly, extroverted children are more comfortable with continued maternal presence while introverted children adapt better to periods of separation associated with infant day care.


Changes in Self-Estimated Personal Growth from Senior to Alumni Status: A 5 Year Longitudinal Study

Jennifer S. Clifford & Thomas P. Hogan
University of Scranton

Student and alumni surveys measuring self-development are one of the most useful tools in assessing effects of college on students. This study used self-reports of development on 18 items which defined a liberal arts education, such as: write effectively; lead and supervise task and groups of people; understand myself: abilities, interests, limitations and personality; use quantitative tools; and appreciate art, literature, music, drama. The purpose of the study was to examine responses on these self-development abilities over time, specifically from senior status to five years later as alumni. For each of the 18 items subjects answered the question, "to what extent each capacity was enhanced by their undergraduate experience", for each of the 18 items. A true longitudinal design was used, as subjects answered the identical question as seniors and then five years later as alumni (N=139). On 15 of the 18 items, subjects reported less enhancement of abilities as alumni than they did as seniors. In contrast reported satisfaction with the college experience increased from senior to alumni status. The magnitude of the changes as well as the relationship between the changes and a measure of satisfaction with college are furthered analyzed.