XIII. Graduate School In Psychology

Before discussing such topics as "Applying to Graduate School", it might be helpful to give a brief summary of just what graduate school is. Graduate school is post-graduate education, taking an average of 2 years for the Master's degree and 4-5 years total for the Ph.D. ("doctoral") degree (5-6 years in clinical or counseling psychology).

There are a number of significant ways in which graduate school differs from your undergraduate experience. First, the credit-hour load will be lighter in graduate school. Nine or twelve credits, rather than 15-18, per semester is a typical graduate load. You can, however, presume that each course will demand a fair amount of time.

Second, you will take psychology courses almost exclusively.

Third, your professors will give you more freedom, and thus increased responsibility, regarding the entire learning process -- ranging from completion of assigned work (no one will nag you!), selection of courses, class attendance, etc. In a phrase, you will be expected to develop into mature, independent scholars.

Fourth, class sizes will be smaller. Some seminar courses will have as few as four students, in which each is expected to master a special topic and "teach" his or her fellow students. In lecture courses, the professor will often expect you to master the textbook, while he or she talks about related material. In addition, scholarly work in the library is often expected. Finally, you will probably experience a closer bond between yourself, fellow students, and your professors due to the preceding points and also to the smaller student/faculty ratio. Many people find that the tight psychological and social bonds formed in graduate school remain throughout their lives.

Must I Go to Graduate School?

No. Graduate school in psychology is not the only option when one receives a bachelor's degree in psychology. Many have found rewarding work with a B.S. or some advanced study in a related area outside psychology. Some of the obvious avenues open are social work, special education, speech therapy, specialized counseling, hospital-related jobs, pharmaceutical research, and personnel work. Both sales and management careers require an ability to deal with people and their needs. See Section XII for additional careers with a bachelor's degree.

Should I Go to Graduate School?

There is no universally correct answer to this question. Each person must decide for him or herself. Here are some things to consider when making your decision:

Do you have aspirations of a career which will allow you both vertical mobility (i.e., promotional and salary ladders) and horizontal mobility (i.e., the opportunity for one to switch from one area to another with the same career)? People with a doctorate generally have more career choices open to them than masters' level psychologists in the same special area. They start at higher positions than those without advanced training.

Do you want a career with a good income? People with doctorates are usually hired at a higher salary than other people. Having a Ph.D. in academia as well as in industry or clinical practice usually insures at least an adequate income. (If the high cost of graduate school is deterring you from going on, then consider the money as an investment in your future with a high rate of return). Many students accepted to a doctoral program receive partial or total funding.

Finally, are you satisfied with the knowledge of psychology you have now? A B.S. gives you a foundation of knowledge. To gain further expertise and sharpen your talents, graduate school is the place to go. Of course, you must realize you don't get something for nothing. The benefits of an advanced degree only come after more effort and application of yourself.

Attending graduate school does not guarantee that you will land a terrific job. There are many other factors which influence your life's course other than education. However, with all other things being equal, graduate school is the safest place to start towards a sound future.

What Can I Do With a Doctorate?

There are many opportunities available for the recipient of a doctorate. You may be involved in academia, research, pharmaceuticals, and, for those who pursue the clinical/counseling, private practice and public consultation.

What Can I Do With a Master's?

If one decides to terminate studies at the master's level, there are various options open. A majority of those who do not pursue a doctorate enter into the job market, possessing more mobility than the holder of a B.S. One job related to psychology which requires a master's is the school psychologist. Also, many holders of masters degrees pursue a career in industry, e.g., industrial/organizational psychology. Finally, much of the clinical work directly with clients is performed by psychological associates with the master's degree. However, 48 of the 50 states now require the doctorate for licensure as a psychologist.

How Should I Best Prepare for Graduate School?

The obvious answer is to perform well in all your academic pursuits. Less obvious but equally important is to prepare early for your graduate school career. In fact, the leading advice book on how to apply to graduate school in psychology is subtitled "not for seniors only!"

The two most highly rated objective criteria for admission into graduate school are your grade point average (GPA or QPI) and your aptitude scores on the Graduate Record Examination (GRE: a glorified SAT). The implications are thus clear: maintain a high QPI and prepare thoroughly for the GREs.

The following is a table reflecting what doctoral graduate programs look for in undergraduate psychology coursework. As was the case with the survey reported earlier in relation to clinical/counseling doctoral programs specifically, these percentages are underestimates because they do not include those schools that simply responded that an undergraduate degree in psychology was required for admission to their program. The message here is: get a strong background in psychology!

Course Prerequisites for Graduate Programs 
Requiring Specific Psychology Courses 
(N = 1,554)

Course  Required  Preferred Required or 
preferred
Statistics 56.5% 28.7% 85.2%
Research Methods/Exper. Design 40.0% 26.0% 66.0%
Childhood/Developmental 11.2% 24.2% 35.4%
Abnormal/Psychopathology 15.6% 16.9% 32.5%
Learning 8.7% 19.6% 28.3%
Personality 12.0% 15.7% 27.7%
Physiological/Biopsychology 5.5% 18.9% 24.4%
Social 4.7% 18.7% 23.4%
Testing/Measurement 9.5% 8.0% 17.5%
History & Systems 4.9% 12.3% 17.2%
Cognitive 3.6% 9.0% 12.6%
Lab course 7.8% 3.8% 11.6%
Sensation & Perception 3.1% 7.8% 10.9%

Source: Norcross, J.C., Hanych, J.M., & Terranova, R.D. (1996). Graduate study in psychology: 1992-1993.  American Psychologist, 51, 631-643

Survey research has investigated the importance accorded to non-objective criteria used for admissions decisions.  This information is summarized in the following table.  The numbers are average ratings of the criterion's importance for admission into graduate programs where 3 = high importance, 2 = moderate importance, and 1 = low importance.

Master's

Doctoral

Criteria

M

SD

M

SD

Letters of recommendation

2.74

.49

2.82

.42

Personal statement/goals

2.63

.55

2.81

.41

GPA

2.75

.43

2.74

.45

Interview

2.30

.76

2.62

.60

Research experience

2.04

.74

2.54

.65

GRE scores

2.36

.66

2.50

.55

Clinically related public service

1.94

.70

1.91

.69

Work experience

1.91

.65

1.87

.68

Extracurricular activity

1.46

.54

1.41

.55

Means are calculated on a coding scheme where 1 = low importance, 2 = medium importance, and 3 = high importance.

Source:  Norcross, J. C., Kohout, J. L., & Wicherski, M. (2005). Graduate study in psychology: 1971 to 2004. American Psychologist, 60, 959-975.

In general, letters of recommendation and research activity are accorded high importance; work experience and clinical service are given medium importance; extracurricular activity are accorded low importance. Although research experience is weighted heavily by master's programs, doctoral programs rate it even more heavily in their admission decisions. Conversely, master's programs weigh clinically-related service more heavily than doctoral programs.

Another survey of the program directors of doctoral-level programs replicated and extended the emphases. Program directors rated the importance of each type of preparation on a scale ranging from very low importance (1) to very high importance (5). As seen below, there is simply no better way to increase one's chances for acceptance than to gain research experience. Computer knowledge and skills are also valued highly by doctoral programs. For these and related reasons, we have integrated computer usage into our core curriculum and strongly encourage you to take Undergraduate Research in Psychology. Note also, as before, field experience is accorded medium weight but extracurricular activities, such as Psi Chi membership, are given little weight.

Importance Assigned By Doctoral­Level Programs To Undergraduate Preparation

Preparation
Clinical M
Counseling M
School M




Research experience
4.28
4.22
4.35
Personal visit to department
3.14
3.31
3.35
Computer knowledge and skills
3.00
3.18
3.21
Paid human service experience
2.90
3.22
3.35
Volunteer human service
2.85
3.18
3.50
Double major with basic science
2.78
2.13
2.00
Master's degree
2.16
3.22
3.21
Psi Chi membership
2.00
2.00
2.00
Source: Eddy, B., Lloyd, P. J. , & Lubin, B. (1987). Enhancing the application to doctoral professional programs: suggestions from a national survey. Teaching of Psychology, 14, 160-163.

Do I Need Letters of Recommendation?

Yes, usually a minimum of three recommendations are required.  It is important to note that the student has the option to waive or not waive the right to see the recommendation. Applied research and consensus of opinion indicate that a more accurate evaluation is given when a student waives his/her right of access.

Also, a personal statement, curriculum vitae ("résumé"), and autobiographical sketch are usually required.  It gives one the chance to distinguish oneself from the other applicants; in a sense it is an opportunity to "sell oneself."
 

How Do I Select A School?

Some students place emphasis upon the location of the school; one person may prefer an urban location, while another may desire to attend a large, rural campus. It is all up to individual preference -- each type of campus has its advantages and disadvantages.

Another factor in determining selection is cost and financial aid. On the average, private schools are more expensive than state schools. The "in-state" vs. "out-of-state" cost difference that operates in undergraduate education is not as important in graduate education, however. That is because (a) once you begin study, you can establish residency there and pay in-state tuition after the first year, and (b) many financial aid deals include a tuition remission anyway. Graduate programs try to support their students with financial aid through work-study, teaching or research assistantships, fellowships (which are more scarce), loans, or some combination of the above. While the current economic climate for graduate aid is worse than it has been previously, there is still support available.
 

What Sort of Credentials Do I Need for Graduate School?

The following tables provide some information for both doctoral and master's­level programs.
 

Median Program Acceptance Rates in Psychology
(% of students who apply and are accepted to a particular program)

Area Masters Doctoral

Clinical Psychology

50%

(table)

Clinical Neuropsychology

---

22%

Cognitive Psychology

42%

24%

Community Psychology

56%

26%

Counseling Psychology

67%

17%

Developmental Psychology

50%

18%

Educational Psychology

56%

50%

Experimental Psychology

50%

24%

Health Psychology

73%

16%

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

60%

17%

Neuroscience

36%

22%

Personality Psychology

---

12%

Quantitative Psychology

83%

25%

School Psychology

44%

30%

Social Psychology

48%

15%

Source:  Norcross, J. C., Kohout, J. L., & Wicherski, M. (2005). Graduate study in psychology: 1971 to 2004. American Psychologist, 60, 959-975.

These are median acceptance rates for individual graduate programs, not the acceptance rate for the entire applicant pool in any given year. For example, an average of 8% of the applicants to any one clinical psychology doctoral program will be accepted to that particular program, but approximately 30-40% of the entire applicant pool will be accepted to some program.
 

Minimum Required and Actual Scores of First-Year Graduate Students by Type of Department

 

Master's Departments

Doctoral Departments

 

Required

Actual

Required

Actual

 Measure

Mean

Mdn

Mean

Mdn

Mean

Mdn

Mean

Mdn

 Graduate Record Examination

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Verbal

449

450

504

500

529

528

571

571

 

 Quantitative

453

450

549

540

538

550

626

630

 

 Total (Verbal and Quantitative)

952

1000

1055

1050

1066

1050

1183

1200

 

 Psychology subject test

495

500

577

570

552

550

633

638

 Grade Point Average

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Overall

2.92

3.00

3.37

3.40

3.11

3.00

3.54

3.56

 

 Psychology

3.05

3.00

3.48

3.50

3.17

3.00

3.66

3.70

 

 Last two years

3.03

3.00

3.44

3.50

3.16

3.00

3.67

3.70

 Source: Norcross, J.C. Kohut, J.L.,& Wicherski, M. (2005).Graduate study in psychology: 1971 to 2004. American Psychologist, 60, 959-975.

Since 2005, Recent Psychology Graduates are Attending Graduate School at:

Alfred University

PsyD School Psychology (2007)

American University, Washington, D.C.

M.A. Psychology (2006)

Argosy University/Phoenix

PsyD Clinical Psychology (2005)

Argosy University/Tampa

M.S. Marriage & Family Therapy/School Guidance Counseling (2005)

Boston University

Masters General Experimental Psychology (2005)

College of New Jersey

M.A. Counselor Education-Community (2007)

Columbia University Teachers College

Ed.M. Psychological Counseling w/Bilingual emphasis (2005)

 
Columbia University

Post-Bacc. Pre-Med (2008)

 
Dowling College

M.S. Elementary Education (2008)

 
Eastern University School

M.S. School Psychology (2007)

Fairfield University

M.S. School Counseling (2008)

Fairleigh Dickinson University

M.A. School Psychology (2005)

Fairleigh Dickinson University

M.S. Psychology (2007)

Hofstra University

Psy.D. School-Community Psychology (2006)

Immaculata College

M.S. Counseling (2008)

Indiana University of Pennsylvania

Psy.D. Clinical Psychology (2008)

Thomas Jefferson University

M.S. Occupational Therapy (2005)

John Jay College of Criminal Justice

M.A. Criminal Justice (2005) (2007)

John Jay College of Criminal Justice

M.A. Forensic Psychology (2005)

John Jay College

M.S. Criminal Justice (2008)

Lehigh University

M.Ed. (2006)

Marist College

M.A. School Psychology (2007)

Marywood University

M.A. Psychology with Clinical concentration (2006)

Marywood University

M.S.W. (2006)

Marywood University

Ed.S. School Psychology (2005)

Marywood University

M.A. Clinical Psychology (2007)

Millersville University

MS Psychology w/certification in school psychology (2005)

Millersville University

MS School Psychology (2007)

Monmouth University

Masters Psychological Counseling (2005)

Montclair State University

Masters Counseling with School Counseling Certification (2007)

Nova Southeastern University

PsyD Psychodynamic Psychology (2005)

Penn State Dickinson Law School

JD Law (2008)

Pennsylvania College of Optometry

O.D. (2006)

Queens College

MSed Mental Health Counseling (2006)

Rider University

Ed.S. School Psychology (2007)

Rutgers University

Ph.D. Biopsychology & Behavioral Neuroscience (2006)

Seton Hall Law School

JD Program (2005)

St. John’s University

M.S. School Psychology (2008)

SUNY Albany

Psy.D. School Psychology (2008)

SUNY Binghamton

Ph.D. Clinical Psychology (2006)

Temple University

M.Ed. Sport & Recreation Administration (2006)

Temple University

PD Pharmacy (2008)

University at Buffalo

M.A. Psychology (2007)

University of Notre Dame

Masters Education (2007)

University of Pittsburgh

Ph.D. Research Methodology (2006)

University of Pittsburgh

M.A. Research Methodology (2005)

University of Pittsburgh

M.Ed. Research Methodology (2008)

University of Rhode Island

Ph.D. Clinical Psychology (2006)

University of Scranton

M.S. School Counseling (2004) (2005) (2008)

Villanova University

M.S. Community Counseling (2006)

Villanova University

M.S. Elementary School Counseling (2005)

Villanova University

Secondary Education School Counseling (2007)

Widener University

J.D. Law (2003) (2007)

Yale University

Ph.D. Behavioral Neuroscience (2006)

Time Line

This last section outlines certain steps that should be taken in the respective years to aid one in gaining admission to graduate school and possibly increase the chance of gaining a fellowship or assistantship. This time line is reproduced from Norcross, Sayette and Mayne (1996).

Freshman and Sophomore Years

1. Take the core psychology courses – fundamentals, statistics, and research methods
2. Find out about faculty interests and research
3. Make preliminary contact with faculty members
4. Investigate various career choices
5. Join psychology student organizations and become an active member
6. Attend departmental colloquia and social gatherings
7. Enroll in courses helpful for graduate school, including biological sciences, mathematics, writing, and verbal communication
8. Become involved with the Annual Psychology Conference
 

Junior Year

1. Take more advanced psychology courses
2. Begin applied work, such as labs and practicum
3. Conduct research with faculty
4. Continue contact with faculty and upperclassmen
5. Enroll in professional organizations, e.g., student affiliate of American Psychological  Association,  American Psychological Society
6. Draft a curriculum vitae to determine your strengths and weaknesses
7. Attend a state or regional psychology convention
8. Peruse graduate school bulletins and catalogs to acquaint yourself with typical requirements, offerings, and policies
 

Application Year

June - July: Continue to acquire research competencies, applied experience, and good grades while you:

1. Begin to narrow down potential schools to 20-40
2. Prepare for the GREs
3. Consider taking the GRE-general if you are prepared; this will afford ample time to retake them in the Fall if necessary

August ­ September

1. Write to schools for information and applications
2. Receive information packets and read through them
3. Consult with advisors regarding various programs, application procedures, faculty of interest
4. Continue to study for the GREs
5. Register for the October GRE administration
6. Update your curriculum vitae
7. Investigate possible financial aid opportunities
8. Begin a file in the Office of Career Services
9. Submit research papers to conferences

October - November

1. Take the GRE and the GRE Advanced Psychology Test
2. Take the MAT (if necessary)
3. Research your area of interest, focusing on the work of faculty with whom you would like to work
4. Request a copy of your own transcript and inspect it for any errors or omissions
5. Request letters of recommendation
6. Begin first drafts of your personal statement
7. Gather information on available scholarships, fellowships, and loans

November - December

1. Complete applications
2. Maintain a photocopy of each application for your records
3. Submit applications
4. Verify that the applications and all necessary materials have been received
5. Request ETS to forward your scores to the appropriate institutions
6. Arrange for the registrar to send your transcripts to schools

January - April

1 Wait patiently and be prepared for surprise telephone interviews
2 Practice and prepare for interviews
3 Travel to interviews as invited

April - May

1. If other programs make early offers, call your top choices to determine current status of your application
2. Accept an offer of admission and promptly turn down less preferred offers

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